Social Influence and Group Processes

Nature And Formation Of Groups

Human beings are inherently social creatures. We live, work, and interact within groups throughout our lives. Groups exert a powerful influence on our thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. Understanding the nature of groups and how they form is fundamental to social psychology.

What Is A Group?

A psychological group is more than just a collection of people. While definitions vary, a group typically involves:

Two or more individuals: A minimum number of people is required.
Interdependence: Members depend on each other to achieve certain goals or satisfy needs. Their actions influence each other.
Interaction: Members communicate and interact with each other, either directly or indirectly.
Shared Goals: Members come together for a common purpose or objective.
Sense of Belonging: Members perceive themselves as part of a distinct entity, a "we" feeling.
Structure: Groups develop norms, roles, and relationships that provide a certain structure.

A mere collection of people on a bus is usually not considered a psychological group, but a family, a cricket team, or a classroom of students working on a project are examples of groups because they share these characteristics.

Why Do People Join Groups?

People join groups for various reasons, fulfilling different needs:

1. Security:

Being part of a group provides a sense of safety and security, especially in uncertain or threatening situations. There is strength in numbers.

2. Status:

Membership in certain groups (e.g., a prestigious club, a successful company, a respected community) can enhance an individual's status and recognition.

3. Self-esteem:

Being accepted and valued by a group can boost an individual's self-esteem and sense of worth.

4. Satisfaction of Psychological and Social Needs:

Groups meet needs for belongingness, affection, attention, and social interaction. Isolation can be detrimental to psychological well-being.

5. Goal Achievement:

Many goals can only be achieved effectively or efficiently through group effort (e.g., building a bridge, winning a sports championship, organising a community festival like Durga Puja).

6. Knowledge and Information:

Groups provide a platform for sharing knowledge, learning from others, and gaining information.

Group Formation

Groups form through various processes, often starting with mere proximity or shared circumstances and developing over time. Common factors leading to group formation include:

Proximity: People who are physically close to each other are more likely to form groups (e.g., neighbours, classmates in the same row).
Similarity: People who share common interests, values, beliefs, backgrounds, or goals tend to gravitate towards each other.
Common Motives and Goals: Individuals with similar needs or objectives are likely to form a group to achieve them together.
Social Exchange: Groups form when individuals perceive that being in the group will provide them with benefits (social, emotional, practical) that outweigh the costs.

Stages Of Group Formation

Psychologist Bruce Tuckman proposed a widely recognised model of group development, describing the typical stages a group goes through from initial formation to completion of task.

1. Forming:

The initial stage where members come together. There is uncertainty, tentative behaviour, and reliance on the leader or established procedures. Members are getting to know each other and establishing initial relationships and norms.

2. Storming:

A stage of conflict and challenge. Members assert their individuality, express opinions, and often clash over roles, goals, and methods. This stage can be marked by tension and power struggles. It is crucial for establishing trust and open communication.

3. Norming:

The group begins to establish clear norms, roles, and expectations. Conflicts are resolved, and a sense of cohesion and unity emerges. Members develop a shared understanding and agree on how to work together.

4. Performing:

The group is well-organised, cohesive, and focused on achieving its goals. Energy is directed towards the task. Communication is open and supportive. This is the stage of high productivity.

5. Adjourning:

For temporary groups (like project teams or committees), this is the stage of dissolution. Members may experience feelings of closure, sadness, or satisfaction as the group disbands.

Tuckman's Stages of Group Development Diagram

Not all groups follow this model strictly, and some may get stuck in certain stages, but it provides a useful framework for understanding group dynamics over time.

Type Of Groups

Groups can be classified in different ways based on their characteristics, purpose, and structure.

Primary And Secondary Groups

1. Primary Groups:

Characterised by close, intimate, and face-to-face interactions. Relationships are personal, emotionally deep, and relatively enduring. Membership is often based on ascribed status (e.g., born into the family). These groups play a crucial role in socialisation and identity formation. Examples include family, close friends, or a small, tightly knit community. In India, the joint family system is a classic example of a primary group.

2. Secondary Groups:

Larger and more formal. Relationships are typically impersonal, temporary, and goal-oriented. Interaction is often based on roles or tasks rather than personal connection. Membership is often based on achieved status (e.g., job role). Examples include a workplace team, a school class, a political party, or a professional association.

While distinct, there can be overlap, and secondary groups may contain primary groups within them (e.g., close friends within a workplace).

Formal And Informal Groups

1. Formal Groups:

Deliberately formed for a specific purpose or goal. They have a clear structure, defined roles and responsibilities, and established rules or procedures. Membership is often based on criteria set by the organisation. Examples include committees, government departments, or sports teams.

2. Informal Groups:

Emerge spontaneously based on shared interests, proximity, or social needs. They have a less rigid structure, undefined roles, and often operate based on implicit norms rather than formal rules. Examples include a group of friends who meet for chai daily, a group of colleagues who go for lunch together, or neighbours who form a local club.

Informal groups can exist within formal organisations and often influence the dynamics of the formal group.

Ingroup And Outgroup

These concepts relate to how individuals identify with and perceive different groups.

1. Ingroup:

The group to which an individual belongs and identifies with ("us"). Individuals typically feel a sense of loyalty, belongingness, and positive regard towards their ingroup. They may see their ingroup as superior to outgroups.

2. Outgroup:

Any group to which an individual does not belong ("them"). Outgroups are often viewed less favourably than ingroups, and members may be subjected to stereotypes and prejudice.

Example 1.

Ingroups and Outgroups in the context of college students in Delhi.

Answer:

For a student of Delhi University (DU), their ingroup might be other DU students, or perhaps students from their specific college within DU. Students from Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU) or Jamia Millia Islamia (JMI) might be considered outgroups, potentially leading to inter-university rivalries or stereotypes.

On a broader level, for a student from North India studying in Chennai, students from South India might initially be perceived as an outgroup, and vice-versa, based on regional identity.

The ingroup-outgroup distinction is fundamental to understanding phenomena like prejudice, discrimination, and intergroup conflict. Social Identity Theory (discussed later) explains how this distinction influences self-esteem and group behaviour.

Influence Of Group On Individual Behaviour

Group membership and the presence of others significantly influence individual behaviour, sometimes in surprising ways. This influence can lead to both positive and negative outcomes.

Social Facilitation and Social Inhibition

(Already discussed in Chapter 5, but relevant here as a group influence).

Social Facilitation: Performance improvement on simple/well-learned tasks when others are present.
Social Inhibition: Performance impairment on complex/poorly learned tasks when others are present.

The explanation is that the presence of others increases physiological arousal, which enhances the dominant response (correct on easy tasks, incorrect on difficult tasks).

Social Loafing

(Already discussed in Chapter 5, also relevant here).

The tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working collectively on a task than when working individually.
Occurs due to diffusion of responsibility.
Less likely when individual contributions are identifiable, the task is important/challenging, the group is small, or the group is cohesive.

Example 2.

A group of students assigned to write a report together vs. students writing individual reports.

Answer:

In the group project, some students may contribute less effort (social loafing) because their individual contribution is less visible and the responsibility for the final report outcome is shared. In contrast, when writing individual reports, each student's effort directly determines their own grade.

Group Polarisation

The tendency for group decisions to be more extreme than the initial inclinations of individual members. If the average initial opinion leans towards a risky decision, the group discussion will likely lead to an even riskier decision (risky shift). If the average initial opinion leans towards caution, the group decision will likely be even more cautious.

Explanations for Group Polarisation:

Social Comparison Theory: During discussion, individuals discover that their views are not as extreme as they thought. To appear more favourable (or at least not less favourable) than the others, they shift towards a more extreme position.
Informational Influence: Group members are exposed to more arguments supporting the dominant viewpoint during discussion, reinforcing and strengthening their initial opinions.

Example 3.

A group of managers discussing whether to invest in a new, high-risk venture.

Answer:

If most managers initially lean slightly towards investing (risky option), the group discussion might amplify this inclination, leading to a decision to invest even more heavily or take on greater risk than any individual manager initially preferred.

Group polarisation has implications for decision-making in committees, juries, and political groups.

Conformity, Compliance, And Obedience

These are three key forms of social influence, where an individual's behaviour is influenced by the real or imagined pressure from others.

Conformity

Conformity is a change in a person's behaviour or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure. It involves adjusting one's behaviour, attitudes, or beliefs to align with group norms.

Classic Study: Asch's Line Judgment Experiment:

Participants were asked to match the length of a standard line to one of three comparison lines. In the experimental condition, participants were placed in groups with confederates (actors) who deliberately gave incorrect answers on certain trials. Results showed that a significant proportion of participants conformed to the incorrect majority answer, even when the correct answer was obvious.

Types of Conformity:

Informational Social Influence: Conforming because we believe others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more correct than our own. We use them as a source of information.
Normative Social Influence: Conforming to be accepted and liked by others, or to avoid rejection or punishment. We conform to fit in with group norms.

Determinants Of Conformity

Factors that increase or decrease the likelihood of conformity:

Group Size: Conformity increases with group size, but typically levels off after 3-5 people.
Unanimity: Conformity is highest when the group is unanimous. The presence of just one dissenter (someone who disagrees with the majority) dramatically reduces conformity.
Nature of the Task: Conformity is higher on ambiguous or difficult tasks (due to informational influence) than on clear, easy tasks (though normative influence can still play a role).
Public or Private Response: Conformity is much higher when responses are given publicly than when they are given privately (written down), highlighting the role of normative influence.
Personality: Individuals with lower self-esteem, high need for social approval, or certain personality traits may be more likely to conform.
Cultural Values: Collectivistic cultures tend to show higher rates of conformity to group norms compared to individualistic cultures, as group harmony and social roles are highly valued.

Compliance

Compliance is a form of social influence where someone acts in accordance with a direct request from another person or group, even if they do not privately agree with the request.

Compliance Techniques:

Foot-in-the-Door Technique: Gaining compliance with a large request by first getting agreement to a smaller, related request. Agreeing to the small request makes people feel committed or helpful, making them more likely to agree to the larger request to maintain consistency in their self-image.

Example 4.

First ask a neighbour to watch your plants for a day (small request), then later ask them to water your garden daily for a week while you are away (large request).

Answer:

Compliance with the small request increases the likelihood of agreement to the larger request.
Door-in-the-Face Technique: Gaining compliance with a moderate request by first making a much larger request that is expected to be rejected. After the large request is refused, the smaller, real request is presented as a concession, making the other person feel obliged to reciprocate by agreeing.

Example 5.

Ask a friend to donate ₹5000 to your charity (large, likely rejected request), then ask them to donate ₹500 (smaller, real request).

Answer:

Rejecting the large request makes the smaller request seem more reasonable, and the principle of reciprocity suggests the friend might feel inclined to agree to the smaller request.
Lowball Technique: Securing agreement to a request and then increasing the size of the request by revealing hidden costs. Once the person is committed, they are less likely to back out.
That's-Not-All Technique: Offering a product at a high price, then immediately offering a better deal (lower price or additional bonus) before the person can respond.

These techniques exploit psychological principles like consistency, reciprocity, and contrast.

Obedience

Obedience is a form of social influence where an individual acts in accordance with a direct order or command from an authority figure. It is compliance with authority.

Classic Study: Milgram's Obedience Experiment:

Participants were instructed by an experimenter (authority figure) to administer increasingly strong electric shocks to a "learner" (confederate) who was in another room, supposedly as part of a study on learning. The "learner" cried out in pain and eventually fell silent as the shock level increased. Despite the learner's apparent distress and their own discomfort, a surprisingly high percentage of participants continued to obey the experimenter's orders to administer shocks, going up to the maximum, supposedly lethal, voltage.

Factors Influencing Obedience (Based on Milgram's variations):

Legitimacy of Authority: Obedience is higher when the authority figure is perceived as legitimate (e.g., wearing a uniform, being in a reputable setting like a university).
Proximity of the Authority Figure: Obedience decreases as the physical distance between the participant and the authority figure increases.
Proximity of the Victim: Obedience decreases as the physical distance between the participant and the victim decreases (e.g., if the participant could see or touch the learner).
Presence of Dissenters: The presence of others who refuse to obey dramatically reduces obedience.
Personal Responsibility: Obedience is higher when the authority figure takes responsibility for the outcome.

Milgram's studies highlighted the powerful influence of situational factors and authority on individual behaviour, even leading people to act against their own moral judgment. The findings are highly relevant for understanding behaviour in hierarchical structures, like workplaces or military settings, and historical events involving atrocities carried out under orders.

Cooperation And Competition

Group dynamics are often characterised by cooperation or competition among members, and between different groups. These processes influence group performance and intergroup relations.

Cooperation:

Occurs when individuals or groups work together towards a common goal, where the achievement of the goal benefits all participants. It involves mutual interdependence and coordination of efforts. Cooperation often leads to positive outcomes for individuals and groups, such as increased efficiency, better relationships, and greater trust.

Competition:

Occurs when individuals or groups strive to achieve a goal that is limited, such that one's gain is another's loss. The goals are mutually exclusive. Competition can motivate high effort and performance, but it can also lead to conflict, hostility, and distrust, especially in win-lose situations.

Determinants Of Cooperation And Competition

Whether individuals or groups engage in cooperation or competition is influenced by several factors:

1. Reward Structure:

The way rewards are distributed is a major determinant.

Cooperative Rewards: Rewards are shared equally among group members, regardless of individual contribution. This promotes cooperation. (e.g., A school team wins a trophy, all members get medals).
Competitive Rewards: Rewards are distributed based on individual performance, creating a winner and losers. This promotes competition. (e.g., Only the top scorer in a class gets a prize).
Individualistic Rewards: Rewards are distributed based on individual performance, without regard to others' performance. This promotes working alone.

In India, traditional structures like joint families or community projects often have elements of cooperative reward structures, where the well-being of the whole is prioritised.

2. Interpersonal Communication:

Open and clear communication fosters cooperation by building trust, understanding intentions, and coordinating actions. Poor communication can lead to misunderstandings and competition.

3. Mutual Trust:

Belief that others will cooperate and not exploit one's cooperative behaviour is essential for sustaining cooperation. Once trust is broken, it is difficult to re-establish.

4. Group Goals:

Having clear, shared goals that require collective effort encourages cooperation. Superordinate goals (goals that are important to both groups and require them to work together) can reduce intergroup conflict and promote cooperation (as shown in Sherif's Robbers Cave experiment).

5. Personality and Cultural Values:

Individual personality traits (e.g., cooperativeness) and cultural values (e.g., individualism vs. collectivism) can also influence tendencies towards cooperation or competition.

Both cooperation and competition have their place in social life. Understanding the factors that promote each is important for managing group dynamics, fostering teamwork, and resolving conflicts.

Social Identity

Social identity refers to the part of an individual's self-concept that derives from their knowledge of their membership in a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership. It is our sense of 'who we are' based on the groups we belong to. Developed primarily through the Social Identity Theory by Henri Tajfel and John Turner.

The theory suggests that individuals are motivated to achieve and maintain a positive social identity, which is based on favourable comparisons between their ingroup and relevant outgroups.

Key Processes in Social Identity Theory:

Social Categorisation: We categorise people (including ourselves) into social groups (e.g., by gender, religion, profession, nationality, caste). This simplifies the social world but can lead to ingroup-outgroup distinctions.
Social Identification: We identify with certain groups, adopting their norms, values, and behaviours, and experiencing a sense of belonging. This group membership becomes part of our self-concept (Social Identity).
Social Comparison: We compare our ingroup with relevant outgroups on various dimensions (e.g., status, wealth, ability). This comparison is made to establish a positive social identity.
Positive Distinctiveness: We are motivated to view our ingroup more favourably than outgroups to maintain a positive self-esteem (since our social identity is linked to our ingroup). This can lead to ingroup favouritism and outgroup derogation, contributing to prejudice and conflict.

Social Identity Theory Processes Diagram

Social identity explains why people show favouritism towards their ingroup, even in minimal groups (arbitrary groups formed for an experiment). It highlights that group membership is not just a label but a fundamental aspect of self-perception and social behaviour.

Example 6.

Social Identity based on being an Indian.

Answer:

Categorisation: Classifying people as Indian, Pakistani, American, etc.

Identification: Feeling proud to be an Indian, celebrating national festivals like Independence Day and Republic Day with enthusiasm, feeling a sense of solidarity with fellow Indians.

Comparison: Comparing India's achievements (e.g., in space research, economy) with those of other countries.

Positive Distinctiveness: Believing that Indian culture, values, or achievements are superior in some ways, which enhances one's self-esteem associated with being Indian.

Understanding social identity is crucial for addressing intergroup relations, conflict, and issues of identity in diverse societies like India, where multiple social categories (religion, caste, region, language) shape identity and intergroup dynamics.

Intergroup Conflict : Nature And Causes

Intergroup conflict refers to conflict, tension, and hostility that occur between different social groups. It can manifest in various forms, from subtle prejudice and discrimination to overt hostility, violence, and warfare. Understanding the nature and causes of intergroup conflict is essential for finding ways to prevent and resolve it.

Nature of Intergroup Conflict:

Involves a sense of "us vs. them".
Often characterised by negative stereotypes and attitudes towards the outgroup.
Increased solidarity and positive feelings towards the ingroup.
Attribution biases, such as the fundamental attribution error (explaining outgroup members' negative behaviour by internal traits) and ultimate attribution error (attributing ingroup positive behaviour to internal traits, outgroup positive behaviour to external/situational factors, and outgroup negative behaviour to internal traits) can worsen conflict.

Causes of Intergroup Conflict:

1. Realistic Conflict Theory:

Conflict arises from actual competition for limited resources (e.g., land, jobs, power, wealth). When groups perceive that they are competing for scarce resources, hostility and conflict increase. (Classic study: Sherif's Robbers Cave experiment, where boys in two groups became hostile during competition for prizes).

2. Social Identity Needs:

As explained by Social Identity Theory, the need for positive distinctiveness can drive conflict. If an ingroup feels its status is threatened or inferior, it may engage in conflict or derogate outgroups to boost its own standing.

3. Perceived Injustice:

Conflict can arise when one or both groups perceive that they are being treated unfairly, deprived of rights, or that resources are being distributed unjustly (relative deprivation).

Example 7.

Conflicts related to reservations (affirmative action) in India.

Answer:

Conflicts often arise due to perceptions of unfairness regarding access to education and jobs. Some groups feel that the reservation system gives an unfair advantage to others, while groups benefiting from reservations may feel the system is necessary to address historical injustice and achieve equity. This involves perceived injustice and competition for resources.

4. Communication Failures:

Lack of open, accurate, and empathetic communication between groups can exacerbate misunderstandings and escalate tensions.

5. Stereotypes and Prejudice:

Negative stereotypes and pre-existing prejudice create a climate of suspicion and hostility, making conflict more likely and harder to resolve.

6. Historical Grievances:

Past conflicts and historical injustices can leave a legacy of mistrust and resentment between groups, making them more prone to future conflict. (e.g., the complex history of intergroup relations in India).

7. Leadership and Ideology:

Leaders can play a significant role in either promoting harmony or inciting conflict by manipulating group identities and grievances. Ideologies that promote group superiority or hatred towards others fuel conflict.

Intergroup conflict is a complex phenomenon with roots in economic, social, psychological, and historical factors.

Conflict Resolution Strategies

Resolving intergroup conflict is challenging but essential for social harmony and progress. Strategies often focus on reducing tension, improving communication, addressing underlying causes, and changing attitudes and perceptions.

1. Superordinate Goals:

Creating goals that are highly important to both conflicting groups and require their cooperation to achieve. This fosters interdependence and encourages groups to see each other as collaborators rather than rivals (e.g., resolving a shared environmental problem, competing together against an external opponent). Demonstrated effectiveness in Sherif's Robbers Cave study.

2. Negotiation and Mediation:

Bringing representatives from conflicting groups together to discuss issues and find mutually acceptable solutions. Negotiation involves direct discussion. Mediation involves a neutral third party facilitating communication and helping find common ground.

3. Restructuring Intergroup Interaction:

Changing the nature of contact between groups to meet the conditions of Allport's Contact Hypothesis (equal status, common goals, cooperation, authoritative support). This moves interaction away from competitive, unequal settings towards cooperative ones.

4. Communication and Dialogue:

Opening channels for communication, promoting active listening, and encouraging empathy can help groups understand each other's perspectives, needs, and concerns, reducing misunderstandings. Initiatives promoting interfaith or intercultural dialogue are examples.

5. Education and Awareness:

Educating people about the roots of prejudice and discrimination, challenging stereotypes, and promoting critical thinking about biased information can reduce the psychological basis for conflict. Learning about shared history and contributions of different groups can also help.

6. Conciliation and Apology:

Acts of conciliation, such as apologies for past harms or gestures of goodwill, can help rebuild trust and pave the way for reconciliation.

7. Addressing Underlying Issues:

Resolving conflicts often requires addressing the root causes, such as inequality, injustice, or competition for resources, through political, economic, and social reforms.

8. Promoting a Common Ingroup Identity:

Encouraging identification with a broader social category that encompasses conflicting groups can reduce the salience of subgroup differences and promote harmony (e.g., emphasising national identity over regional or religious identity).

Effective conflict resolution often requires combining multiple strategies tailored to the specific context and nature of the conflict. Building a culture of tolerance, respect, and understanding is crucial for preventing conflicts and fostering peaceful coexistence in diverse societies like India.